"ملاحظات ميدانية: بلاد الرافدين. هيئة الأركان العامة في الهند. فبراير ١٩١٧". [و‎‎٤‎١] (٣٥٠/٨٨)

For further particulars of individual tribes see the Gazetteer
concerned.
The most generally spoken language in Mesopotamia is a
form of Arabic which is practically a local dialect. The Turkish
officials speak Turkish and some of them French in addition.
Hindustani and English are little understood. Persian is
largely spoken in some districts—in towns on the Tigris, for
example, such as Amarah.
The Muhammadan Religion.
The cardinal doctrine of the Muhammadan religion, which
is called “Islam” (literally “submission to God”), is pure
theism, formulated in the words “ There is but one God'.” It
also accepts the divine missions of Moses, Christ, and Muham
mad. j
A final judgment, an after state, a heaven and hell, good and
bad spirits, and guardian angels are amongst the tenets of the
religion, which inculcates also the virtues of almsgiving, truth,
sobriety, and mercy to animals. Its rites include punctilious
and ceremonious prayer, ablutions, circumcision, pilgrimage,
and abstinence from alcoholic drinks.
The holy book of the Muhammadans is the Koran, which is
written in Arabic and was compiled from the sayings of the Pro
phet. It embodies portions of the Old and New Testaments.
Both Christians and Jews are considered as possessing the
scriptures, and are called by Moslems “People of the Book.”
Of lesser importance than the Koran, but also much vene
rated, are the “ Sunnat,” or traditions of the faith.
Muhammadans are divided into two main sects—Sunnis and
Shi’ahs. Of these the former are generally regarded as the
Orthodox party.
The Sunnis acknowledge the succession of the first four
Khalifahs, Abu Bakr, Omar, Othman, and ’Ali, as rightful
successors of Muhammad, and the subsequent Khalifahs down
to the present Turkish Sultan. These are all considered to have
inherited the sp ; ritual and temporal supremacy bequeathed
by the Prophet.
The Shi’ahs, who are held to be heretics by the Sunnis,
deny the first four Khalifahs and the present succession. They
recognize as the first true Imam, ’Ali, who married the