'IRAQ AND THE PERSIAN GULF' [‎141v] (287/862)

196 CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND FAUNA
low perennial grass, Poa persica, with the brooklime ( Veronica becca-
bunga). With these often occur watercress {Nasturtium officinale),
bulrush (Typha angustifolia), purple loosestrife {Lythrum salicaria),
buttercup {Ranunculus cassius), mint {Mentha royleana), and a shrubby
bramble with edible fruits {Rubus sanctus). The larger streams may
be fringed by a narrow strip of the giant reed-grass, Phragmitis com
munis. On the banks are commonly found willows {Salix purpurea and
S. Medenii), plane {Platanus orientalis), ash {Fraxinus oxyphylla),
brambles, hemp agrimony {Eupatorium cannabinum), fleabane {Puli-
caria dysenterica), and an ornamental giant silver-plumed grass
{Erianthus Ravennae). The grape vine ( Vitis vinifera) frequently
scrambles over the trees and shrubs. Farther from the water’s edge
is found the oleander {Nerium Oleander), an extremely poisonous
evergreen shrub with handsome pink, white, or red flowers. Still
farther from the water is found the chaste tree {Vitex Agnus-castus),
an erect aromatic shrub with grey foliage and small lilac flowers,
which extends also along the banks and hummocks of the stony tor
rent beds of the sub-montane plains. Associated with it is the
Christ’s thorn {Paliurus Spina-Christi), a somewhat straggly thorny
shrub with inconspicuous yellow flowers. The maidenhair fern
{Adiantum Capillus-Veneris) is common below dripping rocks and
cliffs by streams. In lower Iraq it is found also in wells.
{b) Forest Zone. The Kurdish mountains between about 2,000
and 6,000 feet are covered for the most part by an open oak forest.
Denudation of these forests, however, has been progressing for many
years and in many places only a low scrub remains. In the neighbour
hood of villages the trees are much lopped and maimed and the
ubiquitous goat effectively retards regeneration. The cutting of trees
for timber and fuel is entirely haphazard, and the practice of char
coal-burning in many localities also intensifies the destruction of the
natural forests. Far away from human habitations, where the soil is
not too poor or rocky, the trees are often well grown, attaining 50 feet
in height and with large spreading crowns and thick twisted gnarled
boles. There is little accurate information as to the identity of the
oaks of Kurdistan, but on the Iraqi side of the mountains Quercus
persica and Q. infectoria are said to be common. The galls of the
latter are collected and sold for tanning and dyeing. In places
Quercus sessiliflora is said also to occur. Associated trees and shrubs
include maples {Acer cinerascens and A. monspessulanum), terebinth
{Pistacia muticd), hawthorn {Crataegus monogyna, C. heterophylla, C.
Azarolus), juniper {Juniperus oxycedrus), wild pear {Pyrus syriaca),