'The Expedition for the survey of the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, carried on by order of the British government, in the years 1835, 1836, and 1837; preceded by geographical and historical notices of the regions situated between the rivers Nile and Indus. In four volumes. With fourteen maps and charts, and embellished with ninety-seven plates, besides numerous wood-cuts. Volume the first.' [‎380] (457/905)

380
GOVERNMENTS OF ASIA MINOR. [CHAP. XVI.
during the middle ages, so many military despots, of whom
the Sultan is the chief; and except some few restrictions
which have been imposed on him by the Koran, the power of
the latter is absolute.
Gradation of In a time of danger, the whole of the territory is placed
under a great functionary, who takes the title of Vezir of
Asia, for whom of late there has been substituted a military
commandant called the Anadoli Velessi. Some of the prin
cipal governments are intrusted to Dereh Beis (lords of the
valley), who are hereditary chieftains : then follow the Pashas
of three and of two tails, who govern Eyalets, which contain
several Sanjiacs; and next are the Musellims or simple gover
nors ; below each of these is the Sanjiac Bei', the A'yan, the
Agha, and lastly the Delibashi or simple head of a village. The
chiefs are nominated from year to year by the firman A Persian word meaning a royal order or decree issued by a sovereign, used notably in the Ottoman Empire (sometimes written ‘phirmaund’). of the
Porte; each is absolute within his own sphere; and by pos
sessing a delegated power, he becomes the representative of
the sovereign, and the dispenser of justice. There is, how
ever, in each district or town, a court in which, after hearing
evidence in its simplest form, justice is administered by a
Kadi.
Avanias. In theory, now that the civil and military authorities are
separated, the administration of the law, and the fiscal regula
tions of the Khaliph 'Osman, 1 are nearly perfect; but unfor
tunately the former is frequently tainted by bribery, and the
latter are disregarded. The most fruitful sources of oppres
sion are the avanias or fines, which, under various pretexts,
are exacted from the people by way of punishment for supposed
offences. But as these fines, like the assessment of the haraj
and the land taxes, are levied by means of a local council,
composed of the elders of each district or village, the propor
tions are justly allotted, and the evils in consequence, though
serious, are much less felt than they would otherwise be.
Notwithstanding what is thus taken from him, the peasant of
Asia Minor still enjoys a fair portion of comfort,—even the
calamity of a dearth is lessened by prohibiting the export of
1 See above, p. 254 to 261.