"العراق والخليج الفارسي" [و‎‎١‎٩‎٢] (٨٦٢/٣٨٨)

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THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 273
been built and agricultural reorganization had already made great
strides.
Geographical Factors
Campaigning in Iraq is almost limited to the cooler months of the
year. Only in 1915 did operations extend after the end of the first
week in May, and in that year many men died through lack of good
water or from heatstroke during June and July, though this was
partly caused by lack of medical necessities. Operations never began
again after the end of the hot weather until towards the end of
September or later. It was thus a fortunate accident that the war
broke out in November. There were four winter and one short autumn
campaign (in October 1918), each separated by periods of intense
heat and boredom for most, but of hard work for the administrative
services, work of reinforcement and replenishment of supplies. Un
fortunately the campaigning season invariably coincides with the
months when movement is most difficult: at the start the rivers
are low, and navigation difficult and slow; then rain turns the
alluvium of the delta into thick mud, impassable for camel transport
and a slough for wheels; the rivers rise to levels above that of the
surrounding lands, so that pursuit by land can be checked by
deliberately breaking the river bunds. Flies, mosquitoes, and other
pests are at their worst in the second half of the campaigning season,
and sickness is consequently greatest at this time. Mercifully they
do not survive the great heat. These facts had an important bearing
on the different campaigns; Kut surrendered to the Turks on 27 April
1916 when both British and Turks were exhausted by hard fighting and
sickness, so that the hot weather months gave time for reorganization;
Baghdad fell to the British on 11 March 1917 while there was still
time to occupy advanced positions on the Euphrates, Tigris, and
Diyala which rendered its capture secure.
One of the great difficulties of campaigning in Iraq is caused by
mirage. Reconnaissance on land becomes extremely difficult within
three hours after sunrise, particularly in lower Mesopotamia. In
fantry and guns in the early operations often had to rely on look-out
reports from the supporting naval craft; guns especially, until they
were provided with observation ladders, found observation of fire
extremely difficult (p. 181).
The Campaign of 1914.-1915
War was declared between Russia and Turkey on 2 November
1914, following the bombardment of Russian Black Sea ports by
A 5195 T