"كتيّب سوريا (بما في ذلك فلسطين). لندن: إدارة استخبارات الأركان البحرية، يونيو ١٩١٩" [ظ‎‎٥‎٨] (٧٣٨/١٢١)

110
MILITARY HISTORY
the bounds of northern Syria, and its own subjection to a
northern power has been exceptional and transitory. The
prolonged Ottoman dominion of Egypt may be regarded as
a (partial) renovation of the old empire of the Khalifs, and
therefore as a case apart. The only complete conquest of
Syria from the East took place in the seventh century. The
only case of a part of the country maintaining its independence
against powerful invaders occurred during the Crusades. But
the result was then due to the support of Mesopotamia and
Egypt. Cilicia and Euphratesia have always been closely
associated with the political fortunes of northern Syria. The
frontier of Cilicia towards Asia Minor may be regarded as the
best military frontier of northern Syria.
The chief political centres have always been Aleppo,
Damascus, and one or other of the cities on the coast,
sometimes one and sometimes another. Antioch, Hama
and Homs have played important parts in the political and
military history at times. Jerusalem, the chief religious
centre, is not prominent in the political and military history
of the country. Sometimes the greater cities have made
a good resistance to new conquerors, but generally their
opposition has been negligible, apart from the protection of
a foreign power. The fight for the possession of Syria has
sometimes been settled beyond its borders. So far as the
Syrians manifest a choice it is usually for a new master, who
will treat them, as they hope, better than the old.
The usual line of invasion from the north is by way of
Aleppo, Hama, and Homs. After this the invader must either
keep eastwards and deal with Damascus, or pass through
the Biqa 1 into Palestine. The Crusaders, however, advanced
along the coast from Antioch to Jaffa, so keeping in touch
with the sea, and through that with their sources of supply.
Invaders from the north have frequently been met in the
neighbourhood of Homs (Tartar invasions), as well as in the
neighbourhood of Aleppo. When Antioch and Aleppo were
rival capitals numerous battles were fought in the district
west and south-west of Aleppo (Byzantine and crusading